It is, however, not easy to directly interface mechanical actions by silicon electronics without innovative designs and approaches. Vibration-based mechanical signals are ubiquitous in the environment and provide abundant actuation sources for potentially controlling the electronics in the MNS. The future of electronics is an integration of more powerful data processing and more integrated functionalities. The horizontal axis represents the diversification and integration of device functionality for novel applications, such as wearable/implantable human-integrated electronics and self-powered technology for sensing and actuation. The vertical axis represents the miniaturization of device dimension and the increase of integrated device density for more powerful data/signal processing. Perspective of electronics technology beyond Moore's law. Approaches for developing a direct interface between the machine and human/ambient are highly desired for realizing the above applications. The miniaturized dimensions of nanomaterials and the capability of modulating their compositions/properties in well-controlled manners not only present the potential for addressing some of the critical challenges faced by silicon-based microelectronics, but also enable the possibility of incorporating into systems with diversified functionalities, which do not necessarily scale as per Moore's law to complement digital signal/data processing with augmented functional capabilities, such as interactions between machine and human/environment (Fig. Integration of these discrete devices with dedicated functionality toward self-powered smart systems, which incorporate the embedded energy scavenging/storage units for perpetual and maintenance-free operations, is proposed to be one of the major roadmaps for electronics. In addition to the technology trajectory of miniaturizing components for enhanced performance as per Moore's law, which has been the dominating roadmap that drives the advancement of information technology in the last few decades, much effort has been paid on integrating individual micro/nanodevices with diversified functionalities into multi-functional micro/nano-systems (MNS) and large-scale networks for structural health and environmental monitoring, personal electronics, human–machine interfacing and biomedical diagnosis/therapy. Piezotronic effect, piezo-phototronic effect, piezopotential, piezotronics, MEMS, sensors INTRODUCTION The concepts and results presented in this review show promises for implementing novel nano-electromechanical devices and integrating with micro/nano-electromechanical system technology to achieve augmented functionalities to the state-of-the-art CMOS technology that may find applications in the human–machine interfacing, active flexible/stretchable electronics, sensing, energy harvesting, biomedical diagnosis/therapy, and prosthetics. This review intends to provide an overview of the rapid progress in the emerging fields of piezotronics and piezo-phototronics. Piezo-phototronics is to use the piezopotential for controlling the carrier generation, transport, separation and/or recombination for improving the performance of optoelectronic devices. Piezotronics deal with the devices fabricated using the piezopotential as a ‘gate’ voltage to tune/control charge-carrier transport across the metal–semiconductor contact or the p–n junction. Piezopotential is created by the strain-induced ionic polarization in the piezoelectric semiconducting crystal. Utilizing the gating effect of piezopotential over carrier behaviors in piezoelectric semiconductor materials under externally applied deformation, the piezoelectric and semiconducting properties together with optoelectronic excitation processes can be coupled in these materials for the investigation of novel fundamental physics and the implementation of unprecedented applications. Piezotronic nanodevices and integrated systems exhibit potential in achieving these application goals. Technology advancement that can provide new solutions and enable augmented capabilities to complementary metal–oxide–semiconductor (CMOS)-based technology, such as active and adaptive interaction between machine and human/ambient, is highly desired.
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